Designing an Accessible Website - Part 2

Having considered the central concepts behind making a website accessible and the overarching reason why accessibility should be a thread that runs through all website builds, the second part of this article covers the potential benefits of accessibility to your organisation and the principles that you will need to factor in to your website builds to ensure that they are accessible.

Benefits
From a business or organisational standpoint there are a series of reasons that advocate making accessibility central to a website build. The W3C broadly categorises these as follows:

• Social Benefits - Accessibility is particularly important for organisations that are socially responsible/have a remit which is promoting a social cause, to boost their reach and the credibility of their cause, as well as being fundamental to those whose sites’ actual target audiences will rely on accessibility measures.
• Technical Benefits - Accessible sites which are consequently more streamlined, simple in their construction and more accurately and efficiently coded can lead to better performance levels and manageable server loads (under high volumes of traffic), increased compatibility with other services and lower maintenance requirements.
• Financial Benefits - There are economies of scale to be benefited from when implementing accessibility standards in the original build of a site as opposed to retro-fitting it at great expense further down the line. As mentioned above accessible sites may be less complex and therefore cheaper to build whilst their simplicity and clarity can also help SEO performance, usability and reduce the cost of maintenance. Additionally, the increased reach and market share of an accessible site across all abilities (as well as mobile and legacy tech users) can bring in higher revenues.
• Legal & Policy - Despite the number of legal cases remaining very low, website accessibility is still driven, although not prescribed, by legislation such as the EU’s Human Rights act and the UK’ Disability and Discrimination Act. Within these frameworks individual companies and organisations can be dictated by policy, from the requirements surrounding government and publicly funded sites to the internal standards of private companies.

Areas to Consider
There are a number of bodies who promote web accessibility and have therefore published guidelines on accessibility but perhaps the most recognised as an ‘industry standard’ is the W3C with their latest set of Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0.
The WCAG 2.0 guidelines are constructed around the four basic principles of a site being Perceivable, Operable, Understandable and Robust.

Perceivable - Users with varying abilities should be able to perceive the content on your website either directly, or via assistive technologies, without the loss of meaning or increased difficulty. To achieve this you should consider providing text alternatives for all non-text content to allow visually impaired users to perceive content via screen readers. As a minimum the text alternative for all non-text content should identify what it is but to provide greater accessibility it should go further and replicate the purpose of, and information conveyed by, the original content. Examples include descriptions of visual elements and/or transcripts of videos and audio for greater accessibility.

The content should also be presented (and structure) in a way which can be successfully interpreted in different browsers and assistive technologies, whilst being clearly distinct from its background/surroundings and therefore suffering no visual or audio interference.

Operable - The website should be easy to use, with navigation that is consistent and simple so that users can find their way around the site without confusion, whilst also being navigable using just a keyboard. Furthermore, users should be able to control how much time they have to read content, or use functions, and content should not risk causing the user harm by posing, for example, an epilepsy risk.

Understandable - In accordance with the concept of being perceivable, all users should be able to read all content and it should always appear in predictable and relevant contexts to avoid confusion. In addition, all content should make sense in its context and be informative so that where necessary users will know what they need to do to use the website and its functions successfully and correct any errors that they may encounter.

Robust - Finally, the website should be compatible with, and therefore pose no barriers to, technologies and tools that all ability users may use in conjunction with the web site. Examples of such assistive technologies include screen readers and text only browsers. To this end, standards in coding and mark up (HTML etc) as set by the W3C should be adhered to so that all parts of the website can be interpreted by current and future tools built with these standards in mind.

Bearing in mind the requirements and principles of accessibility throughout all stages of a website build is ultimately worthwhile for a wealth of reasons. It is not only the most efficient way of satisfying the legal requirements of your site but it also plays a vital role in increasing the size and reach of your website as well as significantly advancing your credibility as a socially responsible organisation. With a healthy awareness of the issue far more of the potential of your site can be unleashed.

If you are interested in finding out more about designing accessible websites then you can visit Web Design London

Designing an Accessible Website - Part 1

While designing and building a website to look as appealing, interesting and informative as possible it is easy to lose sight of the full spectrum of users, each with varying levels of ability, who may be attempting to access your content. Not only may you be risking the missed opportunity to connect with a wider audience who have some form of impairment, but you could even be construed as discriminating against the less able if your site is not designed or built with a healthy awareness of accessibility at all times.

Many of the techniques and considerations that are important for an accessible website are particularly pertinent when actually coding the site, but in order to ensure their implementation can be successful at this stage, accessibility principles should be prominent throughout the process, from the planning and designing, to the final testing of the new site.

Objectives & Audience
The idea of accessibility in website development is to allow as many users as possible with varying abilities to use your site with no loss of content of function. When considering the accessibility levels you wish to achieve on a new website you should always keep a clear perspective on who you are trying to open your site up to and therefore what abilities you may need to cater for.

The disabilities that you will need to consider can include visual, auditory, vocal, movement and cognitive impairments and many permutations therein. It is ultimately impossible to build a website to be accessible by every single potential user but there are basic and achievable steps which can be taken to ensure that your site is accessible for the vast majority. Ultimately the extent to which you make your site accessible may be limited, or at least impacted, by the original purpose of the website and in some cases the purpose of your site may actually conflict intrinsically with some accessibility requirements. It is therefore the balance between purpose and accessibility that you need to establish when designing your site. As an example, a piece of functionality which has the sole purpose of testing a user’s ability to recognise images in a limited time frame will by definition, and understandably, fall short of certain accessibility criteria because the user is unable to pause the content to allow themselves adequate time to fully perceive the images.

It is also vital to remember that many less able users will rely on assistive technologies such as screen readers to help them access online content and one of your aims will often be to ensure that the site is compatible with these programs to provide the full experience.

Defining the size and extent of the audience that could be reached by an accessible site is very tricky because it is not simply a case of defining and differentiating between the conventional tags of ‘able’ and ‘disabled’ users. Doing so would be drawing a line in the sand and there are many users who a) may be classed as being disabled but have no impairments when online (e.g., a user who has lost the use of their legs can still be fully ‘able’ on a computer), or b) would not be classed as disabled but may have conditions such as colour blindness which limit their ability to use certain sites to their full potential.

Furthermore accessibility issues may also be encountered by users who are elderly and beginning to suffer from perceptual or cognitive impairments, young children, non-native language speakers, mobile device users and people using legacy technologies. Research by Microsoft has hinted that the proportion of the population who experience some factor which inhibits their use of the internet could be as high as 57%.

The second part of this article highlights the advantages of making your website accessible to these audiences and outlines the principles you will need to follow in order to do so.

If you are interested in finding out more about designing accessible websites then you can visit Web Design London

The Value of Saving for Your Child’s Future in Hard Times?

There is a currently a wealth of information and research being released regarding the cost of living and in particular the cost of raising children. It is therefore an opportune time to look at what the latest pieces of research tell us not only about the costs of bringing up children but the value in investing in their future. Almost everybody is feeling the pinch but is it too easy to forget about the longer term?

The latest edition of the Cost of a Child: From cradle to college 2012 report by Liverpool Victoria and the Centre for Economics and Business Research from January 2012 estimates that the average cost of raising a child has shot up once more (by 3.3%), now reaching £218,000 across the period until the child reaches 21. What’s more, with incomes stagnating or even dropping, the ability of parents to afford these rising costs is not keeping pace. Indeed the same research also indicates that 76% of parents are being forced to make cuts in their spending and perhaps more worryingly, 43% of parents are actually reducing the amount they put into savings accounts.

This may not be new news to most parents but it does seem to be focusing their minds on the affordability of childcare in the here and now rather than necessarily thinking about the future.

However, the research also indicates that the steepest rise in the cost of bringing up a child is incurred when funding the child through higher education and that the rise isn’t so severe in the earlier years. It may hint at a suggestion that parents should try to put money to one side in these early stages to fund their child’s first adult years and there are further reasons why saving for this time is worthwhile.

Housing
House prices are currently stagnating, demonstrating that they are seemingly unlikely to fall drastically even when times are tough. It would appear that there is some positive news in the market for first time buyers (FTBs) in that there are now more houses available which theoretically fit into the affordable bracket (less than 4x the average income of the area) than at any time in the last eight years. Although, more worryingly for the future that doesn’t translate into buyers being able to afford these in practice as mortgage lenders are requiring higher deposits and so buyers are prevented from moving into the market as easily as they once did.

In fact the picture for first time and non-first time buyers reflects this. Depending on the research, the average age at which FTBs enter the market now is somewhere between 30 and 38 whilst being predicted by some to reach 40 before the decade is out. Research from Halifax puts the number of FTBs in the market at a record low and Scotland for example, according to the BoS has the lowest number of FTBs in the market since 1976; despite the paradoxical finding that the average price in 77% of local authorities is now classed as affordable in comparison with the average wage.

Education
Research just out from the Association of Graduate Recruiters shows that graduate salaries are on the rise despite the difficulties seen by the job market. The average wage for a graduate is anticipated to rise to £26k, a 4% rise on the previous year whilst the number of opportunities available to graduates is actually dropping. The evidence therefore seems to point towards a more competitive graduate job market where jobs may be harder to come by but one in which the salaries will be more rewarding for those who are successful. The trend may be indicative of a flight to quality in a period where employers are ensuring that they get the best returns on their personnel investments and does suggest that even, or perhaps more so, in a struggling economy, having an academic background may give your child a head start. Saving for your child during their upbringing can ensure that they are better placed to support themselves throughout their higher education and get the qualifications they need (even putting to one side the issue of tuition fees which may be best repaid later on in life).

In conclusion, the latest research when taken in unison paints a picture in which families are unfortunately being squeezed from all sides; being forced to cut back on outgoings in the present but requiring the investment in their child’s future more and more. This will lead to many families needing to make some very difficult decisions but it is crucial that as much as is possible, they keep the long term in their thoughts and don’t simply focus on the present.

The Basic Equipment You Need to Get Online - Part 2

The first part of this article gave a quick overview as to what equipment you may need to use to surf the internet and the most common way of establishing an internet connection in the home. However there are other ways to connect your computer to the internet, each with its own pros and cons.

Choose a Connection - Part 2
Cable - If you already have, or you want to sign up to, cable TV and phone services you can get your internet connection though your cable too. Your cable provider will usually help you set the internet connection up at the same time as installing the TV and phone, either through a modem/router or through your TV box. At the very least they will supply you with a modem/router which will need to be connected to the cable socket just as it would the phone socket if your were using ADSL. Again the wireless routers (with built in modems) are now standard for this purpose. If your house has never had cable before the provider will need to install wires which connect you to the main network (most likely in the pavement outside your house).

Satellite - Alternatively if you are already subscribing to a satellite TV service, or want to, you can add broadband internet to your package here as well. The first and perhaps, most obvious bit of equipment you will need is a satellite, and this will need to be connected up to a modem, or in this case a special satellite modem (otherwise known as a DVB modem), before connecting to your computer. Your service provider will install the satellite and modem for you or convert your existing equipment if you have any.

It is worth being ware that there are two types of satellite broadband that you can consider signing up for. The first, 'one-way', is more affordable but only uses the satellite to (rapidly) receive/download information and any information you send/upload will go through your phone line and will therefore be a lot slower. A 'two-way' service will use the satellite for both and is therefore a lot quicker but, unfortunately, a lot more expensive too.

If you are living in a more remote location it may be the case that the phone network where you live isn't able to support broadband internet and you may not be near the main cable network so satellite may be your only option if you want to get online.

Mobile/3G - The internet is also now available on the go through a mobile phone signal known as 3G. This wireless signal is provided by mobile phone operators and can carry data/information (and therefore the internet) as well as normal phone calls. It is typically used for mobile phones, particularly smartphones, which are designed with the internet in mind, but can also be used for computers, such as tablets and laptops. To connect a computer to the a 3G connection you would need to use what is called a 'dongle' which plugs into your computer and then sign up with a mobile network to use their service. The mobile network will often supply you with the dongle when you do sign up.

If you buy a smartphone, the connection would be set up for you when you buy it and the use of the connection would be part of your phone tariff, however it is important to remember that there may be a limit to how much data/information you can download per month.

As you can see there are a good number of options from which you can choose to get yourself online but don't be put off by the jargon. Once you have worked out which option is right for you (most likely which is the best value) your provider should supply you with everything you need to get online and, in the case of cable and satellite particularly, they will usually install it all for you anyway. Once you are connected there is plenty of internet help out there to help you take the next step and get the most out of your online experiences.

The Basic Equipment You Need to Get Online - Part 1

The vast majority of the UK population are now online and rely on the internet on a daily basis, but for those who have never taken the plunge it may still seem a daunting place. However, everyone can find some aspect of the internet that can enrich or make their lives easier and its never been easier to set up internet access.

Choose a Computer
The first thing you need to consider is the device on which you are going to surf the internet. The most obvious device is a personal computer (PC) but there a different types of computer which may or may not be suitable. A desktop PC is one that will need to sit on a desk and is therefore not portable. They tend to be the best value for money in terms of how powerful they are (how quick they are at carrying out processes; how much they can store on them) and are ideal if you have a study or a desk at which you want to work and browse the internet, or if you need a more powerful computer for advanced tasks. Increasingly the most popular option is a laptop computer which, although often slightly less powerful for the equivalent money, is far more flexible and can be used anywhere around the house or on the go. Fortunately, they have become far more affordable as they've increased in popularity.

The newest contender on the block is what's called a tablet computer or simply tablet, which is similar to a laptop in that it is portable, but it doesn't have a traditional keyboard or mouse, just a screen which is touch sensitive. Many people therefore see these as far more intuitive as you can directly interact with what you are seeing on screen - instead of using a mouse to click on something you just touch the screen with your finger.

The most portable option is that of a smartphone. These are the latest incarnations of mobile phones which can connect to the internet on the go as well a performing the more traditional tasks of making phone calls and text messaging. Most smartphones have touch screens similar to tablets (and some have small keypads as well) although they are not ideal for browsing more complex sites because they have smaller screen sizes

Choose a Connection - Part 1
Once you have your computer sorted, you'll need to think about how you want to set up your internet connection.

ADSL - The most common choice in the UK for household internet connections is what's known as ADSL broadband. To set up an ADSL connection you'll need a traditional (landline) phone line, a microfilter and a modem and you'll need to set up an account with an Internet Service Provider (ISP).

A microfilter is a small device which plugs into the phone socket and separates out your phone connection from your broadband internet connection. Your modem is a device that converts your telephone signal into a digital signal for a computer (and vice versa) and that can usually be combined into a device called a router as well. A router acts as a central hub through which all your computers can talk to each other as well as share the internet connection. Therefore, you typically have the choice of a simple modem which just provides an internet line to a single computer, a modem router which can distribute the internet connection to a number of computers or a Wi-Fi modem router which can do the same over a wireless network. Wi-Fi allows you to share your internet connection over the airwaves with computers anywhere in the house that themselves have wireless capability (i.e., have a wireless adapter) which the vast majority of laptops, PCs, tablets and smartphones do now have built in.

The good news is that the microfilter and modem will usually be supplied by your ISP and the majority will supply wireless routers free of charge as a standard part of their packages.

ADSL accounts can often be the cheapest option for getting your home online but your data/information may download (appear) at slower speeds and you may also have limits as to how much you can download in comparison with other forms of broadband internet. For most people who simply want to browse the internet however, it is more than adequate.

Having covered the devices that you'll need to use to surf the web and then the most common way of connecting to the internet, the second part of this article on internet help looks at the alternative ways you can set up an internet connection for your computer. You may need to consider these if you want to surf the internet on the go, need faster download speeds or you live in a remote area.

What the New EU Directive on Cookies means for Webmasters

This article aims to give an overview of what is required by the new 2011 EU Directive on the use of internet cookies and how webmasters and businesses may look to satisfy the new rules.


Overview

The general remit of the original EU Directive, the Directive on Privacy and Electronic Communications which dates from 2003 is to tackle data protection in digital/electronic media. The 2011 update particularly concerns the appropriate use of cookies. In the UK the Directive is enforced by the Information Commissioners Office (ICO)

The broad requirements of the Directive for businesses and webmasters are to:

• Provide clear and comprehensive information to users of their website(s) detailing what cookies will be used and how they will be used.
• Obtain consent to the use of cookies from each user before deploying them, having provided the above information.

Scope of the Directive

The Directive applies to all cookies except:

• Cookies that are absolutely essential to the working of a service which the user has explicitly requested.
• e.g., a checkout process which requires the site to remember items in a shopping cart from one screen to another.
• 3rd party cookies or cookies relating to 3rd party content which must be clearly identified and explained and will require a solution to be found between all parties involved to obtain consent from the user.

Who will have the ultimate responsibility for 3rd party cookies as a rule is a little bit ambiguous and each case will need to be assessed on its merits. That is not to say that it is an opportunity to avoid the requirements of the Directive. In fact the use of these cookies may require more communication from each party involved to explain and obtain consent from the end user.


The Rules

• The information describing what cookies a site will use and how they will be used must be provided before the user is asked to consent to theme being deployed.
• The amount and detail of the information that is provided by a website should reflect the degree to which personal information is gathered and the user’s privacy is affected.
• Once the user has consented to cookies being used for a site, the information and consent request don't need to be presented again unless new cookies are introduced.
• An opt-out or similar ‘failure to object’ does not equate to consent. The only exception here is if consent is sought/included as part of a broader process which itself explicitly requests consent. For example, a user signs up to a service and it is explained to the user that by doing so they are consenting to the use of cookies

Potential Solutions

There are a number of possible ways in which the sites can satisfy the requirements of the new Directive:

• Pop up windows which users see when landing on site (on each visit until they respond)
• this may cause usability and accessibility issues
• A Terms & Conditions checkbox which is included when a user agrees to the T&Cs whilst, for example, signing up for a new account.
• An additional setting which needs to be turned on, for example, within account portals or against particular pieces of functionality.
• A scrolling information banner which appears on landing pages to inform the user that cookies are not turned on and that they should visit another page (e.g., Privacy Policy) for more information and to turn them on.
• A prompt that the user sees before using a particular feature or piece of functionality on a site.

In any case, webmasters should look to streamline and monitor the use of cookies on their site to the reduce the risk of a breach and/or the layers of consent and information that are required across the site.


Enforcement

The regulations are enforceable in the UK by the ICO who have the following powers (as per the 2003 Directive):

• To perform an audit of action that a webmaster has taken to comply with the Directive
• £1,000 fixed fine for not resolving any breaches that are identified
• (In the worst case scenario) A fine of up to £500k.
• These fines will only apply where serious breaches of data protection covered by the Directive result in extensive or serious damage or distress.
• but relevant if we are dealing with personal data.
• Request information regarding 3rd party breaches

Timeline

The EU Directive and ICO regulation has been in place since 26 May 2011 however the ICO has allowed a lead time of 12 months for webmasters to work on and implement their solutions.

The key dates are as follows:

• 26 May 2011 - 26 May 2012: Demonstrable planning and work should be ongoing to provide a solution.
• 26 May 2012: Solutions must be in place.

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An Overview of Academies & Free Schools

Shortly after the coalition government's election to power in May 2010, they announced plans to introduce greater freedoms into the educational system for headmasters, teachers, parents and even businesses to use their expertise to improve the range of educational opportunities available to our children. With the passing of the Academies Act in July 2010 these plans became a reality and in the autumn of 2011 the first of the coalition's new academies came into full operation. So it is perhaps a good time to take a brief look at what these new schools are.

Academies
The core features of an academy that define it as such are that it is a) publicly funded, b) free entry and c) independent.

The schools will continue to be publicly funded by central government to the same level per child as traditional state schools, but via the Department for Education and its Young People’s Learning Agency rather than local authorities. This means that they are still answerable to central government, however, that aside they have a high degree of autonomy as they sit outside of local authority control and do not need to follow the national curriculum. Academies can therefore decide not only how and what they teach but also when their term times are, what their operating times are, how much they pay staff and how the school is structured. These freedoms are essentially characteristic of traditional fee paying independent schools but the public funding removes the barriers to the features, providing free entry to all. Despite the autonomy they are still however subject to Ofsted inspections as a consequence of being publicity financed.

Academy status can and has been sought at any level of the school system from primary to secondary with some schools providing a unified approach right though these levels, whilst others fit into the existing frameworks in their areas with feeder and reciprical schools much as a traditional state school.

Free Schools
A free school comes under the academy umbrella, however, rather than describing an existing school which converts into an academy, the term free schools is applied to new schools which are set up by any interested party, whether it be teachers, parents, charities or businesses, in a given area to specifically meet a particular demand for the school children in that area.

Again free schools are publicly funded by central government yet sit outside of local authority and therefore have the freedom to operate outside of the national curriculum. However, they do differ from academies in that they cannot, at any stage, be selective in their intake and they are allowed to employ individuals who do not posses recognised teaching qualifications to carry out their teaching.

Making the Switch
Any school can apply to convert to be an academy but only schools rated as at least 'Good with elements of Outstanding' by Ofsted can do so independently. Other schools looking to use the conversion to improve their fortunes will need to enter into a partnership with a high achieving school when applying so that they can benefit from their advice during the conversion.

To become a free school, any interested parties will need to apply to the Department of Education through their New Schools Network who will work with them throughout the process.

The introduction of academies and free schools has provided a whole new raft of opportunities and options to those in the education system and who have ideas outside of the existing constraints of that system so no doubt many schools will be interested in finding out more about how to become an academy.

2010 Divorce Rates and Longer Term Trends

On 8th December, the Office of National Statistics (ONS) released the latest figures on divorces taking place in 2010. Having recently written about the trends over recent years, and what this tells us about the health of marriage as an institution, it is worth considering how these latest stats affect the bigger picture.

The headline is that the number of divorces in 2010 rose; the first annual rise in eight years (since 2003) and seemingly out of step with the broader trend. The total number of divorces that occurred in 2010 came to 119,589 representing a 4.9% increase on 2009’s 113,949 divorces. Although, on the surface, this does seem to suggest a rise in the prevalence of divorce the figure could potentially be explained by other factors such as a larger married population - more tellingly the divorce rate, that is the percentage of the married population that got divorced, also rose from 10.5% in 2009 to 11.1% in 2010. So does this reinforce the perception that more marriages are failing?

Rather than an indication of a broader shift in societal attitudes it is more likely that the results for 2010 mark a glitch in a longer term decline in divorce rates. This kind of glitch or spike in divorce rates has been seen at other points in recent history when the country has been on the tail end of a recession. In 1993 the rate spiked following the recession between 1990 and 1992. There seems to have been a lag between the worst of the financial troubles and a jump in divorces and it seems plausible that this could also hint at causality; financial issues are one of the major causes of relationship breakdowns and the lag may be explained by a) an initial reaction to ‘pull together’ to deal with money issues, b) the build up of subsequent pressures in the relationship and then, c) once the relationship has broken down, the time it takes for divorce process itself to complete.

In terms of the broader picture, the actual number of divorces has been noticeably falling for the last decade although it is easy to attribute this to the corresponding fall in marriages and previous divorce trends eroding the size of the married population in the first place. The fact that the divorce rate has been steadily falling too suggests that those who are married are less likely to split.

Further evidence comes from the profile of those couples involved. More divorces involved individuals aged 40-44 than any other age group in 2010 but interestingly it seems that the age at which people divorce is creeping up (both men and women had 0.2 increases to 44.2 and 41.7 respectively), albeit in line with the rise in the age at which people are marrying, whilst the duration of marriages has plateaued. Moreover, the highest rate of divorces for men in 2010 was seen in the 30-34 year old age group rather than the 25-29 group in 2009 (women were unchanged). This may all suggest that marriages are starting later but are beginning to last a little longer.

Despite the latest figures telling us that 33% of marriages starting in 1995 had failed in the 15 year period to 2010 (up from 22% of those in the same 15 year period from 1970) the ONS is suggesting that the figures they have obtained so far may indicate that the rate of divorce before the 15th year for more recent marriages may be likely to decline. Again this adds a little more weight to the argument that couples now seem to be waiting longer (cohabiting), being more cautious but ultimately, as a result, being more successful in their marriages.

In summary, it would seem most likely that the rise in divorces in 2010 is a spike, as witnessed in previous periods of recession, rather than a longer term trend. There is still evidence in the age and duration of those getting divorced to support the bigger picture that couples are being more successful in marriage, but only time will tell.

If you are looking for more information on the legal support available to you through the divorce process then visit Family Law London.

Why Save for Your Child’s Future?

The demise of the child trust fund set up by Labour in 2005 and the prospect of the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition’s new Junior ISA in the autumn of 2011 means that for many they will be re-assessing whether and how they will be saving for their child's future. As the cost of living seems set to continue its upward path, it is therefore worth taking a look at the benefits that still exist for putting money aside for children.

There are significant tax breaks to be gained when saving on behalf of your children, although as with all such schemes there are some limits and restrictions to be aware of.

Savings accounts for children are exempt from any tax on the interest that accumulates on deposits as long as the child in question does not have a total income exceeding £6,475 for the current tax year (as with adults). However, if the money which is donated by an individual parent or step parent earns more than £100 interest in a tax year then the interest will be taxed as normal. This limit applies per parent though, so in a family with both parents present, the combined possible limit is £200 and there is even the potential for the limit to be as high as £400 if two step parents are involved. What’s more, the limit does not apply to grandparents and other adults that wish to contribute to a child’s savings plan. Therefore, these restrictions should not prevent parents and guardians from accumulating a healthy nest egg for their children which also benefits from the tax exemptions.

In addition, it is worth bearing in mind that any money placed into a child’s savings account will avoid being taxed inheritance tax providing the donor does not die within seven years of making the donation.

Whilst the Child Trust Fund (CTF) is being phased out by the coalition government, it is still a valid savings solution for many parents and their children. All children born between September 1st 2002 and January 2nd 2011 were eligible to start a child trust fund if they were paid any child benefit before January 3rd 2011. For those who have already opened an account, payments can still be made into it until the child turns 18. The trust benefits from a starting contribution from the government of at least £250 (except children who first received child benefits after August 2nd 2010 who will receive £50 only) with the possibility of further contributions for children in low income families. All income and gains from the CTF will be tax free although the contributions made by parents (or any other donors) must not exceed £1,200 in the tax year. The funds are held in trust for the child and although they can take over the management of the fund when they turn 16, they cannot withdraw funds until they turn 18 years of age. At which point they will also be able to transfer the funds to an ISA to protect the tax exempt status.

The coalitions government’s replacement to the CTF is the Junior ISA which is due to launch in the Autumn. The Junior ISA will not receive the government contributions that the CTFs benefited from however it will allow parents to save on behalf of their children and take advantage of the tax exemptions and investment choices that adults can currently benefit from with conventional Cash ISAs and Stocks and Shares ISAs.

There are a few other savings solutions for children which should be mentioned including the National Savings and Investments’ (NS&I) Child Bonus Bonds and Index-Linked Savings Certificates. These plans also benefit from tax exemptions but differ in the terms for which they run and how the income is generated.

Having outlined the available options for child savings and their advantages, time should also be spent considering why it is beneficial to save for your child’s future.

The recent fracas that has surrounded the coalition government's revamp of the tuition fee structure has brought the issue sharply into focus for many parents who must now be wondering how they will give their children the best possible foundation to make the most out of their higher education and deal with the financial consequences when they come out of the other side. One thing that seems certain is that tuition fees are here to stay in some shape or form as all three major political parties in England at least have backed a incarnation of the fees.

For many of course, University may not be may not be the primary consideration. It could also be argued that, even if it is, should the policies surrounding tuition fees remain as they are today, the nest egg you save for your child would in fact be best used to lay the foundation for their post university lives. Therefore attention turns to equipping your children for their professional adult lives.

The current climate means that it is harder than ever for first time buyers to get onto the property market. The days of easily obtained 100% mortgages have gone and financial institutions (and the public) may be wary of them being re-introduced due to the troubles of the credit crunch and subsequent recession. The focus has really come back onto having a substantial deposit. Whilst prices have come back down to some extent they have not fallen drastically and will no doubt creep back up the stronger the economy gets. Arguably the difficulty for first time buyers to get onto the market only seems likely to increase. Meanwhile, with oil prices rising, and consequently the cost travel, food etc, there are plenty of reasons to give your children the best head start possible whn the time comes.

Having painted a slightly gloomy picture of the prospects for our future generations you may wonder whether you can accumulate an amount which will really make a difference, especially at a time when budgets are already being squeezed by the cost of living. It is worth emphasising therefore that a little amount can go a long way. The earlier you start saving for children the greater the potential for growth that those savings have. What’s more, any amount will start your child’s adult life on a positive footing rather than encouraging them to begin in debt.

Encouraging Your Children To Save

Parents receive plenty of advice recommending that they consider saving money on behalf of their children, with successive governments also offering incentives in the form of the old tax efficient Child Trust Funds (CTFs) and the new Junior ISAs. The launch of the latter at the start of November has brought the subject back to forefront of many parents’ minds and it is therefore an opportune time to look at the reasons why it is not only a good idea to save on behalf of your children but to get them involved in the process as well.

Creating a Nest Egg
The primary reason for opening a savings vehicle for your child is usually to create a nest egg for their future; to put money aside which will help them on their way as they embark on adult life. The general economic troubles of the last few years together with the more acute issues, such as the raising of the tuition fee limit and the recent publication of youth unemployment figures topping 1 million, serve as timely reminders that you never quite know what the future may hold for you children when they reach adulthood. Therefore, any nest egg a child can access when they turn 18 may prove invaluable whether it helps cover their cost of living at university, their self sufficiency when employment is hard to come by or even if it helps them to get onto the property ladder.

To that end, savings vehicles such as the CTF or the Junior ISA are designed so that any money put into them will be protected until the child turns 18 in order for the funds to be available when they are most needed.

Educational Benefits
Beyond the more obvious financial benefits of opening a savings vehicles for you child it can also provide an excellent opportunity to introduce your offspring to the world of money so that they can be well prepared when the day comes for them to first take control of their own finances.

By getting children involved in the management and monitoring of their own savings you can increase their familiarity with concepts such as banks and interest and introduce them to the ideas that money you/we put into banks will grow and is (for the most part) secure. You can encourage them to understand that, for savings at least, the mechanics can boil down to the idea that we lend our money to the banks who will then pay us in return and that the amount they pay us is described in the interest rate. Once they are familiar with the more basic concepts they can be encouraged to take part in choosing their own accounts based upon criteria such as interest rates, and then monitoring their progress as they go.

Tax Benefits
Savings accounts for children are often referred to as being tax free which creates the false impression that children do not need to pay any tax at all on their money. In truth there are no differences between the tax children should pay on any money they put aside in savings accounts in comparison to their adult counterparts. In terms of interest, they are subject to the same income tax bands as adults, under which they are not required to pay tax on any income up to £7,475. For most (unemployed!) children this threshold is not likely to come into play but for children who may have extra earnings, parents should be aware.

There are further tax breaks though when adults wish to donate to a child’s savings plan. For any sum put aside by a parent or step parent the interest accrued will be tax free up to the limit of £100 per year, so where a child may have two parents and two step parents for example, this limit could even reach £400. What’s more, the limits do not apply to grandparents or any other generous adults so they can donate any amount of money to your child which would then benefit form tax free interest.

Through vehicles such as the Junior ISA (for children born after 3 January 2011 or before 1 September 2002) and the CTF (for children born between those dates) there are additional tax breaks on offer which mirror those of adult ISAs, such as an exemption from income, dividend and capital gains tax, but in turn the funds are locked up until the child reaches 18 as mentioned above.

Savings for Parents
It may seem slightly cheeky but, within limits child savings can be used as a means of saving a little bit more for the parents whilst taking advantage of the tax breaks. Obviously the above restrictions are designed to partly negate this and stop parents abusing their child’s savings options to circumnavigate tax but there is scope for benefiting up to the aforementioned £100 interest limits per parent. It is always worth remembering though that the money you put into a child savings vehicle does legally belong to the child not the parent (even though the child may not be able to do anything with it without your parental authority).

There are plenty of reasons why saving for children is a beneficial exercise and maybe the hardest decision you’ll have is working out which child savings vehicle is most appropriate for you situation, so it is always a good idea to seek out independent financial advice before committing to anything.

How to Use a Search Engine

If you are planning to make the most of the internet and world wide web then one of the first things you should become familiar with is how to get the most out of a search engine.

When looking for information or a service online there may be hundreds, thousands or even millions of websites out there on the web that are relevant (to a greater or lesser extent) to your query. However without using a search engine you would either have to be told about them specifically or hunt them down yourself by linking from one website to another, until you hopefully find a few that are relevant enough. Even then it can be difficult to gauge how trusted or reliable they are.

This is the job that search engines such as Google, Bing and Yahoo perform for you. There are billions if not trillions of web pages on the web and the number is always growing. Search engines are designed to quickly find you those few that are the most relevant to your query and give more credence to those that are established and therefore more trustworthy.

To understand how to get the best out of a search engine it a good idea to have a basic understanding of how they work. Search engines gather their information using software that sends out what are called ‘robots’ or ‘spiders’ which read the text on every page of every web page they can find, following links from one website to another. The data is then stored by the search engine company.

The exact methods (the algorithms) that search engines use to process all this data are complicated and kept very secret, due to the fierce competition between them, and they are constantly evolving to provide a more refined service. In essence though they will rank web pages for any given terms based upon whether the text content on those pages includes those (and related) words as well as the number and relevance of the other websites which link to the original web page. Factors such as the age of a website and how many people use it (i.e., traffic) are also taken into account to determine how established and reliable the site is.

Each search engine will present you with one obvious search box for you to type your search query, accompanied by a search button. To perform a basic search you simply need to enter the key words that are relevant to your query and click the search button. For example, if you are looking for a dog sitting service in the Salisbury area then type dog sitters salisbury. The results, the pages which the search engine thinks are relevant to your query will appear as a list of links on the page, each with a brief description. Clicking on the link will take you through to that page.

There is no need to present the words as a literal question like Where can I find dog sitters in Salisbury? because the search engine may return results that have the extra words in - you don’t necessarily want a page that asks the same question as you but one that might answer it after all. Some of this extra words are so common that they will not help your search to be more specific anyway. Punctuation is also ignored unless it is a special character which changes the nature of your search - see below.

In addition the words you are searching for do not necessarily have to appear next to each other or in the same sequence on a web page for that page to appear in the search results. However if you do only want to see the pages that contain an exact phrase then you can contain your words in quotation marks. For example, if you are trying to find the website for a business called Salisbury Dog Sitters then you can refine your search results more effectively by searching for “Salisbury Dog Sitters“. Moreover, if you want to web pages that don’t include particular words you can use a hyphen immediately in front of the word. Following the earlier example through, if you want to rule out search results that are appearing for pages that mention dog sitters in Salisbury, Maryland so that you can focus on results from Salisbury, Wiltshire you could search for dog sitters salisbury -maryland.

You can add more words to be more specific in your query such as dog sitters overnight salisbury but be careful not to over-complicate your search and use too many words. Whilst increasing the specificity of your search it can also rule out some results which may be relevant to your query but don’t necessarily contain every single word you’ve used, especially if some of your words weren’t essential for your query. The trick is to be only as specific as you need be and at the same time, target your words carefully. The words you do use need to be as descriptive, unambiguous and as relevant as possible.

Most search engines will offer the ability to perform advanced searches where you can usually specify other criteria for your search results which will help you to be more targeted in your searches. Useful options here can include a time period (to find web pages published within a certain time frame) the language of websites, a filter for more adult content and a geographical focus for your results (usually by country).

Moreover, most search engines also provide you with the ability to search for particular types of online content such as images, news, videos and shopping results using variations of their main search page. Look out for a link to these alternative search pages on the search engine’s main menu and you can ensure that you are only accessing the type of online content you want. The display of the results on these pages will often be more suited to your needs as well. An image search for example will display the results as images so that you don’t need to click on each link to see the image you’re looking for.

Search engines really are the principle gateway to world wide web and it is no coincidence that an estimated 80% of people accessing the web do so through a search engine. Learning, with internet help, how to get the most out of search engines is a key step in learning how to use the internet. Once you’re familiar with how they can be used you may find that the web is far more accessible than you had thought.

How Does the New Junior ISA Work?

The Junior ISA (or JISA) is finally here. After much hype the new savings and investments vehicle for building wealth on behalf of your children was launched on 1st November 2011. If you haven't got to grips with what exactly these new ISAs are and how they work, this article will aim to give you a handy introduction to them; although bear in mind that the finer details of what is offered by each JISA provider will vary.

Who Can Open An ISA?
The Junior ISA has been launched in the wake of, and effectively as a replacement for, the old Child Trust Fund (CTF) that was closed to new subscriptions in January 2011. Their purpose is to provide parents with a tax efficient way to save money on behalf of their children, to be accessed when they reach adulthood.

As a result the new JISAs cannot be opened on behalf of any children who already have an open CTF against their name and can only be opened for UK resident children who are under the age of 18 (anyone over the age of 16 would be eligible to open a standard cash ISA anyway).

The new JISA accounts need to be opened by and registered to an individual parent or guardian although the funds in the account will remain in the ownership of the child. The registered contact for the account can only change in a strict set of circumstances, such as the change of adoptive parents, although it can be switched into the child's name when they reach 16.

How Are They Constructed?
Following the structure of a regular ISA, the Junior ISA will compose of the same two elements, a Cash ISA and a Stocks and Shares ISA. A Junior ISA can involve one or both of these elements and each element can be held with a different provider, however, only one cash element and one stocks and shares element can be held within the JISA at any given time.

When the child turns 16 they can open a concurrent adult ISA and the subscriptions being made to that ISA will not be affected by or affect their Junior ISA.

What Are The Tax Benefits?
Again the tax savings of a Junior ISA mirror those of its adult counterpart, that is any monies held in deposit in the cash element will be exempt from income tax (although income for children, as with adults, up to the level of £7,475 per annum is exempt from income tax anyway), whilst within the Stocks and Shares element, dividends avoid dividend tax and the interest on bonds will avoids income tax. In addition all capital gains will avoid capital gains tax (CGT).

What Are The Withdrawal Rules?
A key distinction between the Junior ISA and the adult version is that any monies put into the account cannot then be withdrawn at any time, as they could be, in theory, with a standard ISA. Monies placed into a JISA are locked away until the child beneficiary turns 18 (although they will also be able to take over the management of the funds when they turn 16).

If they child decides not to withdraw the funds when they turn 18 the Junior ISA will automatically become an adult ISA.

What Are The Subscription & Transfer Rules/Limits?
As with regular ISAs the amount of money you can place in a JISA is limited for each tax year. The overall limit for the current tax year is £3,600, and this will remain in place for the following 2012/13 tax year. However, in contrast to adult ISAs there is no distinction between how much of this sum can be put into each of the two components - in other words the whole £3,600 can be either placed in the Stocks and Shares component, the Cash component or split between the two.

Also, in contrast to their adult counterparts JISAs do allow transfers from the stocks and shares element to the cash element (in addition to transfers in the opposite direction).

Due to the structure of the new Junior ISA it arguably has two principle uses: 1) to provide a nest egg which is ring fenced until the child turns 18 and which benefits from tax free growth along the way, and 2) to provide an additional tax free savings vehicle for parents who are saving for their child’s future and who have already fully subscribed to their personal ISAs. There are many other options available to parents, grandparents and guardians looking to save on behalf of their children but if you are interested in opening a Junior ISA for these potential benefits it really is worth seeking impartial professional advice and shopping around.

What Are Your Investment Options in a Junior ISA?

Since their introduction in 1999, ISAs have become an increasingly familiar method of saving, offering competitive interest rates, instant access and tax breaks. With the more recent launch of the Junior ISA is it perhaps worth recapping the investment choices that are available to parents hoping to build a nest egg for their children’s futures.

The two distinguishing characteristics of a Junior ISA are that their funds are locked aways until the child turns 18 and the annual subscription limits are significantly lower. In general though, Junior ISAs will follow the broad structure of their adult counterparts in that they can be made up of a Cash ISA element and a Stocks and Shares ISA element - albeit, only one of each may be held at any given time - and benefit for the same tax breaks. Each ISA provider is likely to offer a different combination of investment options and autonomy over those decisions based upon their own specialisations and any discounts they may be able to obtain but the options will need to fall into following categories.

Cash

The most obvious ‘investment’ you can make with a Junior ISA is to simply save money for your child as cash; that is to place it into the cash element of the ISA and take advantage of the interest rates available there. In common with standard ISAs, the Junior ISA requires that cash deposits be limited to the Cash ISA only and that any cash found within the Stocks and Shares element be temporary and earmarked for investment in stocks and shares. Unlike an adult ISA the entire subscription for a given financial year can be invested into the cash element although, of course, that total stands at just £3,600 in comparison to the £10,680 allowance for adult ISAs (£5,340 of which can be cash).

Junior ISA providers aim to offer competitive interest rates and the interest your child does earn will be exempt from income tax. The factors to consider, as with any form of cash savings, are how competitive the rate is and the type of rate you’d prefer - variable, fixed or tracker for example.

Shares
Investments in shares, rather predictably, would need to be made through the Stocks and Shares element of the ISA. Shares are units of a publicly listed company that you can buy and sell. For them to be eligible for an ISA investment that company must be listed on a ‘recognised’ (recognised by the HMRC) stock exchange such as the London Stock Exchange (LSE). Your ISA provider should be able to advise and control which shares you are able to invest in but, for example, shares in up and coming companies traded on the Alternative Investment Market (AIM) will not be permitted due to the risks involved.

Funds
This will basically cover all collective investments where individual investors pool their money for that money to then be put into underlying investments such as equities and bonds. Funds like unit trusts and Open Ended Investment Companies (OEICs, see Investment Trust below) have no restriction on the number of people who can buy into them (i.e., are open ended) and therefore your return on your investment is directly reliant upon how well the fund manager invests his pot of money to make it grow.

Investing in funds would again need to be done through a Stocks and Shares ISA. All funds have associated costs for the investor, such as the initial and annual management charges, but many ISA providers will be able to offer you discounts on these because they can trade with the fund manager on a bulk scale. The provider may also have agreements in place which would give you access to certain funds that would not be available if you invested directly with the fund manager (known as institutional funds). However, it is worth being aware that this may all mean that you are restricted to a panel of fund providers with whom the ISA provider has an agreement and thus are not able to pick form the whole of the market.

Investment Trusts
Investment Trusts are essentially listed companies, in which you can buy and sell shares, who are solely designed to reinvest your money into further assets such as equities (company shares). These appear similar to and are run in similar fashion to a fund like a unit trust with fund managers at the helm, although they must always be a distinct company in their own right. As listed companies they only have a limited supply of shares available (i.e., are closed ended) and therefore the value of your shares is largely determined by their supply and demand, in turn driven by the underlying performance of the fund.

You can access investment trusts through the Stocks and Shares ISA as you would other funds, but it is possible to tie your ISA to one particular investment trust to benefit from their investment know how if you wish.

Bonds/Gilts
Stocks and Shares ISAs will also allow you to invest in corporate and government bonds (gilts). This is essentially a mechanism whereby you lend your money to a corporation or government for a fixed period of time (a term) in exchange for a pre-determined rate of interest and the return of your original investment at the end of the term. Lending you money to a government tends through a gilt is seen to present less risk than if you were to lend to a company through a corporate bond.

The world of savings and investments can be a very complex one with potential losses as well as gains so it is always a good idea to seek professional and independent advice before you make any decisions. By knowing the above options though you should be better prepared to make the most of the investment opportunities a Junior ISA can offer.