Cambridge - A Few Interesting Facts

Front of the college Peterhouse on Trumpington Street. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

Cambridge is a world famous city and largely for one reason, its university  The institution does indeed dominate the town’s history and continues to shape its profile today; and as a result the town has had a notable impact on the wider culture and wealth of the country for the last 800 years. The following article provides a handful of interesting facts about the city that you may or may not have known already, and that give an idea of its stature.

The Old University
As mentioned, Cambridge and its university are essentially synonymous - the reason that the city has such a global profile. The university is not only one of the top five in the world but can claim an almost unrivalled heritage being as it is the second oldest in the English speaking world, and the third oldest that is still in existence in entirety - behind only Oxford and Bologna. In fact, the institution owes its very existence to a decamping from Oxford in the first place following disputes there between the scholars and the locals. This first groups of incoming scholars can be dated back to 1209 although the university didn't receive its royal charter until 1231. The first of its colleges that we still know today can even be traced back to the 13th century with the founding of Peterhouse college by the Bishop of Ely in 1284.

Scientific Soccer
The modern game of football may have been given its moniker by the other university in Oxford but Cambridge can be considered to have been instrumental in its development. Arguably the first ever game of what we would recognise as football or soccer was played in the centre of the city on Parker’s Piece - a park still popular with locals and students alike. The game in 1848 was the first to use the Cambridge Rules which went on to be a prime influence behind the first ever of set of standardised association football rules 15 years later. What’s more, many of the fundamental tactics that shape the way the game is played to this day can be attributed to the university’s team. The Combination Game, as it came to be known, promoted the idea of each player having a position on the pitch, and a role in the therefore in the team, as well as reliance on the passing of the ball in place of dribbling and charging. These revolutionary changes are taken for granted now but were labelled ‘scientific’ in the 19th century and many have credited their development to the Cambridge University side of 1882.

Granting of City Status
Cambridge had been granted a town charter as far back as the 12th century, however, due in part perhaps to a number of episodes - like the one in which it found itself on the wrong side of the peasant’s revolt in the 14th century leading in turn to a revised charter and more control placed in the hands of the university - as well as the lack of a cathedral, it took until the mid 20th century to gain city status. To the surprise of many who assume that Cambridge is a typical Cathedral city, it still doesn't have a Cathedral and instead falls within the diocese of Ely.

Grant being the Operative Word
It may be well know that the town’s name can be ascribed to its position at the bridge over the famous River Cam - the iconic scene of punting students on a sunny afternoon - but what is perhaps not so well known is that the river actually owes its current name to the town and not vice versa. The Anglo-Saxon name for the river was Granta and the name for the town therefore was Grantabrycge, meaning Bridge over the River Granta. Indeed the Anglo-Saxon abbreviation for the town, as seen on coins minted there, used to be Grant. However, this name has been subsequently corrupted down the centuries to arrive at the modern ‘Cambridge’, whilst the river has since borrowed the ‘Cam’ back. The name Granta is still used to refer to the river in some contexts, including a couple of its tributaries, and traces can be seen in modern place-names such as Grantchester - a village on Cambridge’s outskirts (which is allegedly home to the highest concentration of Nobel Prize winners in the world).

London’s Other Rivers - Central & East London

Nouormand: Pliaque à Londres (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The third part of this article introduces two more rivers which empty into the Thames from the north. The first could be seen to be the most important river, the River Thames aside, in the capital’s history, the River Walbrook. The other is a river which still flows as London’s second river and which has fallen into the spotlight again in 2012, the River Lea.

Walbrook
To the east of the Fleet, running through the City of London, the River Walbrook is one of London’s most influential lost rivers, arguably the most influential. In times passed, it would have risen in modern-day Finsbury (or possibly even further north in Shoreditch) and flowed through the city of London (under the city walls - one possible root of its name) and into the Thames near what is now Cannon Street Railway Bridge.

Like the Fleet, it can trace a history of settlement back to at least the Roman era and the Roman settlement formed where the two rivers would have met, 150 metres inland from the modern bank of the Thames, would have included a strategic port, temples (e.g., the temple of Mithras whose remains can still be seen nearby - although not in their original location) and government buildings. This important strategic town went by the name of Londinium and so, in other words, the settlement that was the origin of the capital city that we know today. The future global city grew up either side if the brook on the north bank of the Thames, up the slopes of what is now Ludgate (to the west) and Cornhill (to the east).

Being at the heart of Londinium, the river has therefore witnessed many significant episodes in the history of the capital and the country as a whole, but, as a smaller watercourse, it was always susceptible to development. Having deteriorating to an open sewer in the middle ages, the river was first covered in the mid 15th century and within a hundred years or so the entire stretch of the river within the city had been built upon. The modern river has been incorporated into the sewerage system since its construction in the mid 19th century.

Lea/Lee
London’s second river, the River Lea is perhaps the first of London’s other rivers that would come to mind for many, owing largely to the fact that the Olympic Park for the 2012 London Olympics was located in the lower Lea valley in Stratford, East London. The river itself, which flows from its source near Luton, through Hertfordshire and North London into the Thames at Bow Creek, is modest in comparison with the capital’s main artery however it still has a significant imprint on the London landscape. The old river has carved out a valley which cuts through the north east of London and although now drained, is responsible for a number of marsh areas such as those at Hackney and Tottenham. Unlike many of the other rivers mentioned so far, the Lea, owing to its greater size and position, has been harnessed by man for industry rather than being lost to sewers and development. As a result it still flows through East London in the man-made channels which would have serviced local mills for hundred of years.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
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London’s Other Rivers - South London

English: Vauxhall Bridge, London. View of the downstream side (north east) of the bridge from Millbank on the north bank of the Thames river. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The third instalment in this series of articles focussing on the past and present rivers of the city of London looks at two form the south bank of the Thames; one of which is still prominent along it’s course, the Wandle; the other now lost underground to development, the Effra.

Effra
The River Effra is arguably the best known of South London’s lost rivers due to a campaign by a group called the Effra Redevelopment Agency to unearth its course in the early 1990s. The source of its name is still disputed cannot be traced back in the history books beyond the mid 19th century when much ‘burying’ of the river took place. The course of the river runs underground through culverts as well as sewers which were constructed in the 19th century to utilise the natural contours and flows of the river as suburbs were developed upon it.

The primary route would have taken the river’s waters through the borough of Lambeth, from Upper Norwood (which would have been woods), through Crystal Palace, Dulwich, Herne Hill, Brixton (which was a small village before its urbanisation) and Kennington (where criminals were hanged on the adjacent common) before emptying into the Thames at Vauxhall (near Vauxhall Bridge). Its course can still be traced through sewers along much of this route but these sewers now take some of the flow across to South East London and into treatment works. One more obvious hint to the former course of the river is the naming of Effra Road in Brixton, under which the river still flows within the sewer. This stretch also provides one of the two access points to the former river, the other being under the crypts of St Luke’s Church in West Norwood.

In truth, the river would have been more like a collection of streams congregating (particularly around what’s now Herne Hill) before flowing into the River Thames and the primary course of the underground river is still fed by a number of tributaries coming from across south Lambeth, from the areas in and around the Dulwiches, the Norwoods and Crystal Palace.

Wandle
The River Wandle is the largest river flowing northwards through London into the Thames. Capturing water running off of the North Downs, the river flows for 9 miles from Wandle Park in Croydon, through districts such as Sutton, Merton and Wimbledon, arriving at the Thames at Wandsworth from which it is thought to take its name. Akin to many of the lost rivers in the capital, it has been heavily managed due the urbanisation of the areas through which it flows, ever since the first settlements of the Romans. In particular, the textiles and tobacco industries have flourished on its banks in later centuries by harnessing the energy of the river. As a consequence, certain stretches of the river have been re-routed or buried but much of the course still runs above the surface through south London.

Like most of London’s ancient rivers, the flows of the River Wandle would have weaved in and out of many streams feeding and being fed by the main artery as it found its way across what would have been wetlands. Until recently this characteristic was still apparent on the river’s course through Croydon as it split into a number of streams through the town, but the spreading of disease and a need for better sanitation demanded that these waterways be filled in.

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London’s Other Rivers - The Fleet

Blackfriars Bridge with St Paul's Cathedral behind (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The second part of this article introduces the largest of London’s lost rivers and one which can be considered to be integral to the growth and success of the ancient capital, the Fleet; a river which has been subsumed by the development of central London on the northern banks of the River Thames into which it would have emptied.

River Fleet
Perhaps also the best known of London’s lost rivers, the River Fleet has had a lasting impact on some of London’s most familiar areas and landmarks. As with it’s two cousins to the west, the Tyburn and the Westbourne, the Fleet would have risen from the higher ground of Hampstead where the two ponds of Hampstead and Highgate can still be seen today. On its course it would have flowed through the area we know as Kentish Town, Camden, King’s Cross and Farringdon, following the route of Farringdon Road and New Bridge Street to the site of Blackfriars Bridge.

The river has a rich and long history, from significant Roman settlements, including what is thought to be the oldest tidal mill in the world, to the numerous Anglo-Saxon wells that lined its banks (so much so that the river became known as the river of wells). It was on a bridge over the river near modern King’s Cross that Boudica is even meant to have finally met her end in battle.

However, subsequent centuries of industrial and urban development, due its proximity to the centre of London, led to a degradation in the areas along the river’s banks causing the waterway to become an open sewer. By the end of the 17th century the river had been converted into the New Canal in an attempt to revive it, but, as this failed, its southern reaches were gradually culverted in the mid 18th century due to a lack of use, before Blackfriars bridge was eventually built at the river’s old mouth. The middle section of the New Canal was superseded by the Regent’s Canal in the early 19th century and the uppermost stretches were covered in the late 19th by development of the Hampstead suburbs. Despite all this, the buried river can still be seen emptying into the Thames at Blackfriars and can even be heard through grates just off of Farringdon Road.

Just like many of London’s other lost rivers the Fleet’s presence can be traced back through place names which live on. Many of the streets in the vicinity carry a reference to the river itself or the wells and mills that would have existed along it; most notably of course, Fleet Street, the historical home of the newsprint industry, which approaches the old river valley from the west. The area of Holborn, also just to the west of the river is so named after the bourne (or one of its tributaries), with “Hol” being a derivation of either “old” or “hollow” referring to its valley. Meanwhile, Clerkenwell, on its eastern banks is a noticeable reference back to the river’s old wells. The name of the river itself refers to the Anglo-Saxon term for a tidal inlet, as it would have been, leading off from the tidal Thames.

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London’s Other Rivers - The West End

English: WORK 16/376; is an illustration, said to be from about 1680, of the permanent gallows at Tyburn, which stood where Marble Arch now stands. This necessitated a three-mile cart ride in public from Newgate prison to the gallows. Huge crowds collected on the way and followed the accused to Tyburn. They were used as the gallows for London offenders from the 16th century until 1759." (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

London is one of the most famous river cities in the world with the River Thames being its lifeblood down the centuries and key to its success as the hub of the biggest empire ever seen. However, if you ask people to name any other rivers running through the UK’s capital they may struggle. Before being built upon, numerous rivers coursed the low lying wetlands that once occupied the site of the Thames basin where London’s modern metropolis stands. Many smaller tributaries have disappeared with the development of the city and a good few streams and rivers became buried in culverts and sewerage systems, with just a handful maintaining their presence above the surface. this article looks at some of the more notable.

Tyburn/Tybourne
One long lost river which has a lasting legacy in spawning a significant area of settlement, despite its small size, is the Tybourne, or Tyburn. This stream would have risen in South Hampstead and meandered down to the Thames, splitting into two (possibly even three) before reaching the great river. In the process it would have created an island, Thorney Island, where Westminster Abbey was built and the Palace of Westminster also now stands. On its route it would have flowed through what we would recognise as Hampstead, St John’s Wood, Regent’s Park, Marylebone, Mayfair, and Westminster. The area of Marylebone is one in particular that can trace its name back to the ancient stream, named as it is after the church of St Mary on the banks of the bourne.

Through West London the river would have passed along or near many of what are, these days, the capital’s most familiar streets and landmarks: passed Primrose HIll, through Regent’s Park itself, along Baker Street, across Oxford Street and Bond Street tube station, across Piccadilly, through Green Park, through St James’s park, passed the front of where Westbourne
The River Tyburn should not be confused with the Tyburn Brook which in turn is a tributary of the next lost river, the River Westbourne. This river would have run just to the west of the Tyburn, but, akin to its near neighbour would have also originated from the Hampstead hills. On its route to the Thames in Chelsea (in the grounds of the Royal Hospital), it would have passed through wetlands and meadows that are now some of the most exclusive residential districts in the world, including Knightsbridge and Belgravia. Earlier in its course, it would have flowed through Kilburn, where a number of its tributaries met, Maida Vale, Bayswater and then Hyde Park.

The river has one of the most obvious legacies in the names of the surrounding areas of the West End. It was once named the Kilburn (royal river), particularly upstream, and was referred to as Bayswater further down its length, hence the modern names of two of the districts on its banks. What’s more, the stretch that passed through Hyde Park had been known as the Serpentine River and an echo of it can still be seen in the ornamental lake that forms the Serpentine and Long Water in the modern Kensington Gardens/Hyde Park (created by damming the river in the 18th century). Even Knightsbridge takes its name from a long lost bridge over the Westbourne - a spot where Empress Matilda once confronted the capital’s citizens during the 12th century’s Anarchy. The river also lends its name to many nearby streets such as Westbourne Park and the adjacent tube station.

In the 15th century the rivers waters from Bayswater were diverted to provide clean water for the city of London, however, as the surrounding West End developed in the 18th and 19th centuries, the waters became unclean and were buried to form sewers and culverts under the new residences. The underground river’s course can still be seen in pipes running through Sloane Square tube station.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
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The City of Bath and its Attractions

The Roman Baths (Thermae) of Bath Spa, England. This is a 6 segment panorama taken by myself with a Canon 5D and 24-105mm f/4L IS lens. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The beautiful city of Bath in the South West corner of England is a mecca for tourists now as it has been across the millenia. As a world heritage site with a rich history dating to pre-roman times, there is plenty to both see and do for the 3.8 million tourists that flock to the city every year.

Bath is located in the northern tip of the ceremonial county of Somerset near the border with Wiltshire and just 13 miles from the important trade port and cultural centre of Bristol; but it is its position in the valley of the River Avon, right on the edge of the Cotswolds that is the reason for its existence as it is the site of the hottest natural geothermal springs in the UK.

The establishment of Bath and its subsequent prosperity throughout the ages can be traced back to the discovery of these three hot springs. From prehistoric times the site was important as a place of worship with people investing the springs’ waters with healing powers whilst honouring the pagan god Sulis. With the arrival of the Romans in AD40 the new town of Aqua Sulis sprung into life and the spiritual importance of the springs was embraced. They were the first to build permanent stone structures around the springs, from 60-70AD onwards, channeling the naturally warm waters into classic Roman bath rooms. In doing so they began the site’s transition into a prosperous spa town and a destination where travellers would come from far and wide searching for the healing properties of the waters.

The unique spa and baths meant that the city remained a popular destination for the great and good of society throughout the near history from Elizabethan to Georgian to Victorian times - bringing to the town a rich mix of culture and high society living which lives on today in its traditions of theatre, music and the arts.

The Baths
Whilst we may no longer assign such spiritual significance to the springs, the baths are still a draw for visitors who still come to take advantage of their perceived healing or, at least, relaxing powers. The Roman Baths themselves have been rebuilt, along with much of the city, during Georgian period and in the classical and Palladian styles although some of the original buildings have been preserved. The complex now consists of the Sacred Spring, the Roman Temple, the Roman Bath House and a museum, and although they are no longer used for bathing, they are a fascinating historical attraction to be toured, providing a great insight into the history and the heart of the city.

For those wanting to take a dip in the famous waters, the new bath complex, the Thermae Bath Spa, was opened in 2006 with the New Royal Bath at its heart, featuring two spring fed baths, an open top pool with views of the city centre and extensive spa facilities. It also incorporates the older Hot Baths and the open Cross Bath which were again rebuilt by the Georgians but can still be used for bathing nowadays.

Bath Abbey
Adjacent to the Roman Baths is Bath Abbey. The abbey was first founded as a monastery by the Anglo Saxons and has been rebuilt by successive Bishops of Bath & Wells starting shortly after the Norman conquest and finishing with a major rebuild in the Elizabethan period. For a time in the middle ages it served as the seat for the Bishops of Bath and Wells and it is an excellent example of gothic architecture, particularly noted for its fan vaulted ceiling.

Georgian Architecture
The popularity of Bath during the Georgian era led to great expansion and left us with the famous and distinctive architecture associated with the city today. Built using the distinctive bath stone - limestone from surrounding hills - much of the Georgian architecture was designed by father and son John Wood the Elder an John Wood the Younger in a classical revival and Palladian style. The most notable examples of the period are the majestic Royal Crescent and the unique Circus (some of the most sought after addresses in the country), although the architecture also continues through many of the adjoining streets spreading west from the city centre. The layout of the Georgian streets and the ornate decorations on the building themselves are said to contain nods to masonic and occult references and it is thought, for example, that the layout of the Circus, Gay Street and Victoria Square represent a masonic key symbol.

Bath is also home to Pulteney Bridge situated on the River Avon. Again it is constructed in the Georgian style whilst being influenced by bridges such as the Ponte Vecchio in Florence. It is one of only four bridges in the world to carry shops.

Shopping
Bath is now a major shopping centre catering for tourists and locals alike. It has a healthy mix of high street names, particularly in the new shopping area of SouthGate, high end boutique shops (Milsom Street) and quirky independent shops in the back streets and alleys leading away from the Abbey. The city also has plenty of eateries dotted about the town centre from leading Vegetarian restaurants to the famous Sally Lunns bakery and cafe which is seen as the home of the Bath bun.

For thousands of years, Bath has been a popular destination for travellers and tourists still come from across the world to stay in the unique city. Whether you want to take in the splendour of the Georgian streets, take a relaxing dip in the thermal waters or simply do a bit of Christmas shopping, Bath has plenty to offer.


© Stuart Mitchell 2011

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The History of Family Offices - What Are They Now?

The world of family offices is one that is still understandably obscure to the general public. They are by definition the realm of extremely wealthy families and well out of the reach of the vast majority of the population. However, they do also have a long and rich history dating back hundreds of years and which not only frames what we think of as a family office to this day but can be considered to influence many of the wealth creation models that we have now come to rely upon.

What Are Family Offices?
The concept of a family office is a fairly broad one. In essence they are organisations which manage the wealth of a particular family, or families, where that family has substantial assets. Their purpose or aim is to sustain and/or grow wealth of these high net worth (HNW) families so that it may be passed down the subsequent generations. In practice, therefore, a family office (FO) can be involved in managing any element of an estate that impacts on that family’s wealth and so, in their various incarnations, the services they offer may include expert financial advice, estate management and practical administration.

These services can be supplied in a number of different arenas. Where families own business interests, a family office may be integral in overseeing those interests or even managing their operations directly; whereas other families may demand advice and administration services to maintain and/or grow investment portfolios. Others may simply need specialist administration and management services to facilitate the smooth running of all aspects of their estates, from tax administration to farm management.

Family offices can generally be assigned to one of two categories: those that are created and dedicated to managing the estate of just one family - single family offices (SFOs) - and those specialist companies that provide services on behalf of a number of family clients - multiple family offices (MFOs). SFOs often operate as in-house teams to allow for the more hands-on management of the estate/wealth of the family. MFOs can be standalone specialist companies with a portfolio of family clients or they can operate from within larger organisations, particularly financial institutions such as banks.

The idea of a family’s estate can also be manifold in terms of incorporating any of their possessions from fixed property (land and buildings) and chattels to business interests and financial investments. Consequently, some family offices, particularly SFOs - one stop shops - can have a diverse brief, and skill set, needing perhaps to execute share trades on the one hand and oversee land management on the other. Meanwhile, there can also be a large variety in the focus and specialisation of MFOs, some focusing on financial advice and management, whilst others provide estate management services. This varied portfolio and application of differing business models represents the divergent history of the services that we now bracket as family offices.

In the next part of this article we will focus more on how the concept of a family office has evolved down the ages, and across the world, to provide us with the organisations and services that we have today.

The History of Family Offices - Through the Ages

Having briefly described the incarnations that family offices in the present can take, the second installment of the article looks at how we have arrived at these business models through centuries of evolution.

Ancient History
The concepts behind family offices have developed independently across the world, especially in Asia where there was a strong tradition of family dynasties in countries such as China and Japan. These dynasties required the means to preserve their legacies and power and significant facet of that would have revolved around their wealth. Some of the earliest incarnations of family office-type teams can be traced to these roots, with evidence of people being employed to preserve the wealth and welfare, for example, of the Shang dynasty in China as long ago as the 17th century BC.

Early European History
In Europe, the idea of a family office can trace its financial history back to the inception of the concept of banking for the sake of sustaining and preserving wealth; in contrast to money lending. One of the earliest examples of this practice can be attributed to the age of the crusades when a need arose to place wealth in trust whilst noblemen were away fighting in foreign lands. The demand for trusts to conserve wealth remained throughout the many conflicts that affected the continent down the subsequent centuries.

Generally speaking, family office-type and trust services were provided by traditional banking operators such as the Jewish communities, the protestant Swiss and Scottish bankers. However, prominent, sometimes ruling, European families from the middle ages - those that we now think of as dynasties like the Medicis of Florence and, more latterly, the Rothschilds family who spread across western Europe - also created their own banks and would have provided similarly styled services, They would have managed wealth creation on behalf of their own families but then, in turn, would have also offered services to the other prominent families of the time; effectively acting as forerunners of what we would now think of as private banks or specialist banking for HNWs. The lines for such families would no doubt have been very blurred, between entities that we would class as family offices and their banking services - because the family wealth would have been inextricably tied up with their banking activities. The families who were creating these early banks, and providing financing for others, were also likely to be those with the wealth to warrant a need for family office-style services.

Away from the financial management, land owners, from the middle ages onwards, also employed people to run their estate and the workers who would have toiled on their lands and serve the family in their day to day lives. Through the feudal systems of medieval Europe (for example, after the Norman invasion in England), ownership of land became focused within the minority nobility who in turn could give access to that land to vassals in exchange for their loyalty and labour. These labourers evolved through time, beyond the breakdown of feudalism, into teams of land workers and servants. These workers were free citizens and simply employed by the wealthy land owners to maintain the estate - lands and properties. The concept of these servant classes arguably reached its zenith in the Victorian era but as relative wealth declined the larger teams became the preserve of the ultra-wealthy only, creating the footprint for family offices.

Modern US History
The modern European incarnations of family offices in particular can therefore trace their lineage back to the medieval estate managers and family banks but the modern concept is also heavily influenced by the resurgence of family offices as financial management organisations in the US. In fact term itself, “Family Office” originates from modern US usage.

The American resurgence occurred at the end of the 19th century and start of 20th when private offices were established by wealthy US families in response to a lack of third party financial services, such as private banks, which targeted ultra-HNW individuals. The banks were prohibited by US legislation from offering joined-up services and so it was left to teams of advisors and other financial firms, such as accountants and legal partnerships, to provide the services associated with family offices, often creating family trusts in the process.

The specialist companies that started to appear focused on managing the financial elements of multiple wealthy families in contrast to the in-house offices that had existed before and that were previously popular across the pond. Latterly, relaxation in the US laws has allowed for the integration of family office services back into private banks.
© Stuart Mitchell 2012

A Brief History of Dermatology

The following article takes a look at the history of the area of medicine known today as dermatology, including its earliest incarnations in classical cultures.

What is Dermatology?
Before looking at the history of dermatology as a profession and as a term it is a worth briefly summarising what it actually involves. In a very basic sense dermatology is the area of medicine that relates to the skin. As a result it can cover practices which deal with diseases, cancers, infections, allergies and hormonal reactions that affect the skin, as well as purely cosmetic alterations and/or the treatment of ‘blemishes’. These practices can therefore involve areas such as surgery and pathology (diagnosis and treatment of diseases). Practitioners in the field are called dermatologists with more specific titles depending on their areas of expertise (e.g., a dermatolopathologist will specialise in dermatolopathology - the pathology of skin).

Ancient Dermatology
Dermatology as a defined concept really came into being around the end of the 18th and start of the 19th century despite the fact that skin conditions would have been treated and acknowledged throughout the course of human history. The coining of the term gave a formal label to a branch of medicine which included treatments and practices that would have been performed for thousands of years. In fact some of the earliest accounts of advanced skin treatment date back to the ancient Egyptians. Everyone knows the stories of Cleopatra bathing in ass’s milk, and the effects on the skin of the lactic acid in the milk are still recognised today. However, the Egyptians were known to use other substances to alter the appearance of their skin such as alabaster, oils and salt. They even applied some chemicals to the skin for medical rather than cosmetic purposes with arsenic, for example, being used in an attempt to treat skin cancers.

The forerunners of many other non-invasive dermatological practices which are still being explored today can also be traced back to the Egyptians. Techniques such as dermabrasion could be identified in the use of sandpaper to smooth down rough skin and scars, whilst they even realised the benefits of exposing skin to light (a practice which carried on through the ages), in their case natural sunlight.

The cosmetic benefits of skin treatments continued to be appreciated throughout the ancient world. The Greek and Roman cultures used a mixture of substances such as natural oils and resins (e.g., myrrh and frankincense) with pumices to smooth and exfoliate the skin. Across Asia, in India, they replaced the natural resins with urine to achieve the same results and rather drastically the ancient Turks achieved their exfoliation by actually singeing the skin.

The Birth of Modern Dermatology
The term dermatology itself Comes from the Greek for “skin” derma and “to learn” logy via first the French dermologie and subsequently the latinised term dermatologia. In fact the French were early practitioners in the modern field or dermatology, opening the first school in Paris at the Hôpital Saint-Louis in 1801. What we now consider as dermatology though can be traced back to the early 16th century in Europe and much of this early work focused on the use of chemicals from classical practices as well as sunlight on conditions such as eczema and psoriasis.

20th Century Dermatology
The start of the 20th century saw greater innovations in skin treatment using electrosurgery (treatment with electrical currents) and cryosurgery (the use of extreme cold) with subsequent developments in liposculpture (removal of fats from under the skin surface) and hair transplants taking place in the first half of the century. The early 1900s also witnessed the introduction of peels to strip away dead skin and expose new healthier skin, through the use of Phenol peels in particular.

In the 1950s, the use of light treatments evolved into the development of lasers and in turn these techniques progressed in the latter half the 20th century to deal with the removal of hair and certain cosmetic blemishes. Indeed, laser treatments are still being developed with current advances centering around the treatment of issues such as stretch marks and the tightening of the skin. The late 20th century also saw the further developments in peeling techniques to replenish the skin using trichloracetic and alpha-hydroxy acids, which hark right back to the earliest Egyptian practices.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
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Knightsbridge in Profile

English: Knightsbridge, SW1 (2) Taken at the junction of Brompton Road, and looking towards Hyde Park Corner. The usual heavy traffic is evident here -- this is the A4, a major route out of Central London to the west. (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The area of London known as Knightsbridge is a well renowned as a exclusive residential district of London and as home to some of the most famous shops in the UK. The following article provides an overview of this compact, yet significant district of London.

Where It Is
The district of Knightsbridge is located in West London, spanning the edges of the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. It has a prime location on the southern edge of Hyde Park, surrounded by Brompton and South Kensington to the west, Belgravia to the east and south with Buckingham Palace just beyond. The area is in fact named after the Knightsbridge Road which roughly forms its northern border, on the edge of Hyde Park. To the east it is approximately separated from Kensington by Exhibition Road and to the west Sloane Street forms its border with Belgravia, although the boundaries of the area are in truth very blurred.

Knightsbridge Road itself is one of the most famous sections of the traditional route to the West of England and Wales, the A4, the Great West Road. As an extension of the Brompton Road it runs towards the centre of London into Hyde Park Corner and ultimately continues past some of London’s most recognisable landmarks. It carries on into Piccadilly, down the northern extent of Buckingham Palace, through Piccadilly Circus, Haymarket and Charing Cross and along The Strand and Fleet Street.

The district sits within Zone 1 of the local transport network in London and is served by Knightsbridge tube station on the Piccadilly line, although Hyde Park Corner tube station is also on the edge of the area.

What’s There
Knightsbridge is world famous for two things, shopping and exclusive homes. In terms of its residential credentials it is up alongside its illustrious neighbours such as Mayfair and Belgravia as home to some of the most expensive and sought after real estate in the UK if not the world. In fact it has been judged that 14 of the UKs 200 most expensive streets are within the small district. What’s more in 2007, the most expensive apartment property on the planet at that time was sold in Knightsbridge for a staggering £100,000,000. Perhaps the most prominent residence in Knightsbridge, however, is actually the towering apartment block of the Hyde Park Barracks, home for the members of the household cavalry.

The district boasts some of the most exclusive designer and retail outlets in the capital too and is home to arguably the two most famous flagship department stores in the UK, Harrods (since 1849) and, just up the road, Harvey Nichols (since 1880). Indeed Knightsbridge has been designated as one of only two international shopping centres in the capital alongside the West End (which includes Oxford Street).

History
The settlement that we now think of as comprising the Knightsbridge area grew from a small settlement founded around a bridge on the River Westbourne, a tributary of the Thames, between the larger villages of Chelsea and Kensington. The river, which is now is now hidden underground in sewage pipes, also shared its name at various stages of its course with areas of London such as Kilburn, Bayswater and Serpentine (in Hyde Park).

The most notable event in the history of the the bridge at Knightsbridge is the fateful meeting between Empress Matilda and the residents of the capital 1141. Matilda was in dispute with her cousin King Stephen for the right to succeed her father, his uncle, Henry I as the ruler of England in a conflict latterly known as The Anarchy. She arrived to claim the throne having captured and deposed Stephen but was ultimately turned away by the Londoners having failed to show enough humility and coalesce on their demands for lower taxes.

For such as small area of London is certainly has a big reputation. Despite being dwarfed for much of its existence by more illustrious neighbours it has now become an internationally renowned hot spot in London for all things associated with an high-end exclusive lifestyle.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
If you want to find out more about living in Knightsbridge then visit Estate Agents Knightsbridge.

The History of the Old Bailey - Expansion

Old Bailey (P1000292) (Photo credit: swh)

Having been resurrected after the Great Fire of London, the Old Bailey court buildings saw significant developments throughout the Georgian period alongside its neighbour, Newgate gaol, until it was completely rebuilt at the start of the 20th century. The second instalment of this article tells this story, arriving at the Old Bailey we know today.

Georgian Developments
The newly rebuilt Old Bailey courts were open to the elements until 1734 to reduce the prevalence of diseases and with good reason it seems. After they were enclosed to improve privacy, typhus became a common problem, accounting for 60 souls in one outbreak alone, the Lord Mayor amongst them. The buildings saw further developments between 1774 and 1824 when a new court was added. Following the fire and up until 1834, the courts had had a limited remit as the court for London’s shire county of Middlesex but, in 1834, the Old Bailey took on responsibility for hearing cases from across England as it became officially recognised as the Central Criminal Court for the first time.

In its role from the time of the Great Fire of London to its designation as the official central court for England & Wales, the Old Bailey was also responsible for hearing all death penalty cases in the capital due the the presence of the neighbouring Newgate prison. Newgate became the holding gaol and the final destination for those awaiting the ultimate punishment and indeed the hangings of convicted prisoners were performed just outside of the gaol and court buildings right up until 1868. The gaol and the courts of the Old Bailey were connected by a passage known as Dead Man’s Walk where crowds of spectators would gather to admonish the guilty party on their short trip to the gallows. The popularity of this spectacle grew to the extent that the court authorities were forced to build an underground passage for the condemned after one single crushing incident in 1807 which killed 28.

20th Century Development
Up until the twentieth century the Old Bailey and its courtrooms were annexed to its much larger next-door neighbour, Newgate prison. In 1902 however the last of the ancient and infamous gaol was finally demolished and in its place the modern Old Bailey was constructed and extended to form the buildings that are much more recognisable to us today.

This new Old Bailey was built in an Edwardian Baroque style by the architect Edward Mountford, the man who was also behind the town halls in Sheffield and Lancaster. It was complete with a ceremonial entrance, still only deemed fit for the Lord Mayor and royalty, as well as the famous dome with its iconic and unmistakable Lady Justice figure stood upon it. The Lady Justice herself (a derivation from the classical goddesses of justice, e.g., the Roman Justitia) was created by the sculptor Frederick Pomeroy with the sword in her right hand and scales in her left to signify the weighing-up of evidence and the application of justice respectively. The new grand Old Bailey finally had its official opening by the reigning Edward VII in 1907.

However, a third of a century later the building suffered extensive damage from German bombing during the London blitz and the building wasn’t fully restored to its former glory until some years into the 50s. The interior of the Great Hall beneath the dome, for example wasn’t completed until 1952 although it was updated to include paintings which reflected its turbulent recent war history, the older history of the city of London as well as key figures in the history of law and justice (and of course royalty). The Blitz wasn’t the last trauma to hit the buildings of the Old Bailey though as they were also damaged by a strategically placed IRA car bomb in 1973 - perhaps a perverse testament to the role that the courts play and their importance in criminal law proceedings in the UK. Visitors to the courts can still see a shard of glass which became embedded in the wall above the main staircase as a result of the explosion.

The final or most recent stage in the development of the Old Bailey complex came the year previous in 1972 when it was extended with the construction of the new South Block boosting its capacity and taking its court count to 19 - a long way from its original incarnation as a single courtroom annexed to the long gone Newgate gaol.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
If you want to find out more legal services in the capital then you can visit Solicitors London.

The History of the Old Bailey - Background & Origins

English: Plaque Old Bailey Plaque on the wall of the Old Bailey courthouse commemerating the site where the old Newgate prison used to stand (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

The Old Bailey is one of the most famous institutions relating to law and crime in the UK and perhaps beyond. The building and courtrooms of the Old Bailey have been the stage for many of the country’s highest profile criminal cases down the centuries and so the name, as well as the building with its domed roof and gold statue of Lady Justice, have become symbolic of the judicial system and the courts of London and the UK.

Background
The name the ‘Old Bailey’ is used to refer to what is more accurately the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales (Scotland & Northern Ireland have their own) and the buildings that make up the court complex. The courts are to be found on the edge of the City of London on the corner of the Old Bailey road and Newgate Street.

In its role as a crown court, the Old Bailey has and does witness the most significant and serious criminal cases from around the capital as well as a few, when their specific circumstances warrant it, from elsewhere across England and Wales. As a result it has the highest profile of any criminal court in the country and so it is referred to extensively in popular British culture. The iconic Lady Justice statue atop the domed roof symbolises British justice whilst the functional entrance to the courts in south of Old Bailey has become very familiar to us all from countless news reports down the years.

Early History
The common-use name for the courts is actually taken from the name of the street on which it is found. The name of the street in turn refers to the fact that it was historically the site of the western segment of the old wall, or bailey, surrounding the city of London. The wall originally dated from the Roman occupation and a small portion of it can still be seen in the basement of the Old Bailey court buildings.

The site immediately to the north of the Old Bailey was the location of a gate within these walls which could also trace its origins back to the Roman era and which sat across the old Silchester to Londinium Roman road. The imposing gate buildings, which became known as Newgate, were appropriated to house criminals entering or leaving the city and in 1188 the first incarnation of the infamous Newgate prison was constructed at the gate on the orders of Henry II.

The Old Bailey courthouses evolved as an addition to the Newgate prison whilst the prison complex was developed and improved in the 16th century using funding from the late Sir Richard Whittington (the inspiration behind Dick Whittington). The first record of the actual law court dates back to 1585 although that, along with the rest of the prison complex were destroyed in the 1666 Great Fire of London and whilst the prison was rebuilt in 1672, the courts were not reestablished for a further two years.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
If you want to find out more legal services in the capital then you can visit Solicitors London.

Mayfair - A Potted History

English: Shepherd Market, Mayfair, London W1J (Photo credit: Wikipedia)

For many the name Mayfair is instantly recognisable as the most expensive property on a UK monopoly board and, to a large extent as a result of that association, it is considered one of, if not the, most prestigious areas of London. In reality, it does a good job of living up to that billing and is home to some of the wealthiest commercial and private inhabitants in London, but how did it all come about.

The May Fair

The area of London that we now know as Mayfair, was until the late 16th century farmland on the banks of the old River Tyburn, on the fringes of the city. As may seem obvious, the name of the area was derived from a fair that was held on the site every May and which ran for almost a hundred years from the late 17th century onwards. The fortnightly fair began life in Shepherd Market as a livestock market but later evolved into a broader proposition with a variety of trade stalls and entertainments such as jugglers and theatre.

However, as it grew it attracted more and more ‘undesirables’ whilst, at the same time, the area surrounding the fair was increasingly being built upon and gentrified as a result of its position on the outskirts of the city as well as its proximity to the royal estates. The fair and the area’s new Georgian residents therefore made uneasy bedfellows and in 1764 the fair was moved to Fair Fields in Bow following complaints from the locals.

The Urbanisation of Mayfair

Consequently, the transition of Mayfair from a rural area to an urban district coincided with the decline in fortunes for the fair. From the mid 17th to 18th centuries the streets replaced the fields with the names of many still harking back their original uses - the most obvious example being Shepherd Market where it all began. The urbanisation was driven by local and wealthy land owners such as the Grosvenor family (later to become the Dukes of Westminster) as well as the Royal family (indeed much of the area has in fact remained in crown possession to this day) and so the new streets were filled with sumptuous Georgian mansions and townhouses which were sought after by London’s elite.

Mayfair’s streets spread to fill some of London’s prime real estate; leading off the grand Regents Street to the east and filling the space between the royal parks and estates of Hyde Park to the west and Green and St James parks to the south with their royal palaces. The area became part of the traditional parish of St Martin-in-the-Fields - a parish of central and west London, encompassing the city of Westminster - and with that location, combined with the its fashionable buildings and architecture, its allure was guaranteed to the present day.

Modern Mayfair

Mayfair is now synonymous with elite London, home to the rich and the powerful and it has gained this reputation for good reason - not just due to its prime location on a monopoly board! Situated within the city of Westminster and surrounded by the royal estates to the south and west, it is also bordered by the up-market Marylebone to the north and the commercial and entertainment hearts of London, Oxford Street, the west end and Soho just to the east, making it an incredibly convenient as well as prestigious place within the capital to live.

However, most of the area is actually non-residential. It is home to a good proportion of London’s high-end commercial premises with some of the most exclusive shopping in the world. Savile Row, the world famous street of bespoke tailors is found to the east of Mayfair as is the most definitive street of high-end fashion shops (clothing, jewellery and art etc) in the country, Bond Street, with its unrivalled portfolio of designer brands.

In addition, Mayfair is the location of high profile foreign embassy offices, with the most obvious example being the US embassy in Grosvenor Square, as well as cultural hots spots such as the Royal Academy of Arts. Due perhaps to its location, architecture, fashion and cultural offerings and prestige the area also contains most of the top hotels in the capital with names such as the Dorchester and Claridges.

With all these delights on offer, the brand of Mayfair has never been stronger and it continues to be known all over the world. From humble beginnings it is now one of most desirable places to live not just in the UK, but Europe and beyond.

© Stuart Mitchell 2012
If you are keen to find out more about living in West London then visit Estate Agents Mayfair.